By P. Karunakara Menon

Position and Boundaries.-—-This is the southernmost taluk of the district proper. It formerly comprised the three taluks of Betatnad, Kutnad, and Chavakkad, which were amalgamated into one in 1861. The boundaries are north, Ernad taluk ; east, Walluvanad taluk and the native State of Cochin; south, the native State of Cochin ; west, the Arabian sea.

Area.—The district not having been surveyed, the exact area is not known. The approximate area, according to the census of 1881, is 258,154 acres or nearly 404 square miles. The extreme length of the taluk from north to south along the coast is 64 miles, while its width ranges from 3 to 20 miles in different parts.

Soils and Topography.—The scenery in comparison with that of the two neighbouring taluks of Ernad and Walluvanad, is flat and uninteresting, especially along the coast, while inland, low hills clothed sometimes with scrub jungle, but generally with grass and flat rice-fields interspersed with groves of coconut, areca-nut, jack and various other trees surrounding the dwelling houses of the inhabitants, constitute the principal varieties of the landscape.

The soil along the coast is poor and sandy, the only redeeming feature being that this open seaboard is fringed with groves of coconut trees. There is no granite in these parts, but in the interior parts the formation seems to be gneissic, traversed by granite veins, which generally prevails in the two adjoining taluks referred to.

Inland Water Communication.—The most striking feature of the taluk is perhaps the series of lagoons or — backwaters lying in a zigzag direction along the coast and affording, with the connecting artificial canals, an easy inland water communication. It extends southwards from the Tirur Railway station to Ponnani, Chavakkad and Cochin and thence into the Cochin and Travanoore States. The total length of this system of inland water navigation from the Tirur Railway station to Cochin is 93 miles (of which 77 lie in the taluk) as detailed below : Tirur to Ponnani section 16 miles ; Ponnani to Chavakkad section 17 miles ; Chavakkad to Cochin section 60 miles.

The boats in general use both for cargo and for passengers are the common country (dug-out) boats and they are manned generally by two men and will hold from 5 to 20 persons. The maximum charge per mile for a boat is 2 annas, and the average speed attainable 2½ miles an hour. Transit can be effected by day and by night. No cabin boats are available in the taluk. Now and then, one of them passes through it from Cochin to Tirur. Its average speed is 5 miles an hour, the charge for a boat varying from 3 to 5 and more annas per mile according to size. Owing to want of sufficient water in some parts of the canals connecting the backwaters, the speed in the case of the country boats is diminished, while that in the case of large cabin boats is entirely obstructed during the hot season in certain parts of them.

Rivers: In addition to the aforesaid chain of backwaters, the taluk is intersected by the Ponnani river and a few other minor streams. Timber from the Anamalas and the Mannarghat forests is largely floated down the river during the rainy season to the timber depots at Ponnani, belonging to local merchants as well as to the Cochin sirkar, for export to foreign places.

Lakes: There are also two large shallow lakes in the taluk. One of them the "Viyyattil" lake is situated about 3 miles east of Ponnani and the other familiarly known as the “Trichur" lake is about the same distance east of Chetwai and 8 miles from Chavakkad. They are respectively connected with the backwaters communicating with the sea at Veliyangod and Chetwai. Protected by strong artificial dams from tidal influence the beds of both the lakes are to a considerable extent cultivated with paddy after the monsoon. The "Viyyattil" lake lies entirely in this taluk, while the greater portion of the “Trichur" lake belongs to the Cochin State. The average extent of such cultivation and the amount of the revenue derived in the former are acres 7,920 and Rs. 10,865, respectively, and in that of the portion of the latter belonging to this taluk, acres, 2,292 and Rs. 2,960.

Climate.—The climate along the coast, generally, is temperate more or less throughout the year, while in the interior parts adjoining the taluks of Emad and Walluvanad, it is very hot in the of April and May.

Meteorology.—The subjoined statement shows the rainfall in the taluk in inches for eight years (1878—85).

The Health Water Supply. The health of the people, as a rule, is good. The water supply is also good, especially towards the interior parts, but it is unsatisfactory in the towns of Ponnani and Tanur.

Sanitation. The conservancy of the chief towns is looked after by a staff consisting of 1 Sanitary Inspector, 1 maistry, 13 sweepers and 1 totti, paid from Local Funds. The Inspector, with his headquarters at Ponnani, supervises the work of the whole staff which is distributed as follows :—Ponnani, 4 sweepers and 1 totti ; Betatpudiyangadi, 3 sweepers ; Tanur, 1 maistry and 3 sweepers ; the remaining 3 sweepers being attached respectively to the three fish curing yards situated at Ponnani, Veliyangod and Tanur.

Population.—In the matter of population this taluk ranks first in the district. The total population (inclusive of the floating population) was, according to the census of 1881, 392,654, of whom 194,150 were males and 198,504 females. Classified according to race, Hindus predominated ; next came the Muhammadans and lastly the Christians, the number returned under each class being 231,402, 146,868 and 14,363 respectively, or 59, 37, and 4 per cent of the total population. The number of persons shown as belonging to other classes was 21.

Increase when compared with that returned by the census of 1871: The percentage of increase in the population as compared with that returned by the previous census of 1871 was 4.77 in respect of males and 4.78 in that of females ; the total increase in both the sexes being nearly 4.78. The average density of population to the square mile was nearly 972, and in this matter this taluk ranked second in the district, the first being Cochin. The proportion of males to females was in the ratio of 496.5 to 503.5 in every 1,000.

Houses.—There were 78,148 houses in all. Of these 70,625 were occupied and the remainder 7,523 unoccupied, the average number of persons per house amounted to about 5.6.

General Condition of the People.—The people generally are poor. There are a few rich and many indifferently off. The subjoined statement shows the number of persons following the various occupations as returned by the last census (1881) :

Classified according to occupation.

Incidence of the Imperial Licence Tax.—The incidence of the Imperial Licence Tax for the past official year 1885-86 was as follows :—

Sub-divisions of the Taluk for Administrative Purposes.—

Amsams: For executive purposes this taluk is split up into 73 amsams. As Amsams elsewhere, the revenue work of each amsam is carried on by the Adhikari assisted by the Menon and a couple of peons. The Adhikaries likewise exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction, their civil powers extending to suits for money not exceeding Rs. 20 in amount, and the criminal to petty cases of assault and theft arising in their respective amsams.

General Revenue charge: The Tahsildar, whose headquarters are at Ponnani, has the general revenue charge of the taluk. He is assisted in his work by two Deputy Tahsildars stationed at Betatpudiyangadi and Kuttingal, to whom are assigned 21 and 28 amsams respectively.

Over these amsams they also exercise criminal jurisdiction, while the Tahsildar has the special magisterial charge of the remaining portion of the taluk. The taluk forms a separate revenue charge, designated the "Southern Division” under a General Duty Deputy Collector exercising also magisterial powers who has his head-quarters at Ponnani.

Agriculture.—The staple produce of the taluk is coconuts, though paddy is also largely cultivated. The subjoined statement gives the acreage under each head in fasli 1295. Average under each head.

Thus the total area under cultivation is 148,318 or 232 square miles, or a little more than 57 per cent of the total area of the taluk (taking it to be about 404 square miles)—the extent under garden being 40 per cent the total area under cultivation.

The following table shows the demand roll of assessment for the same fasli :

Revenue.—The subjoined statement shows the revenue of the taluk derived from different sources for a series of the 8 Fasli years, 1288-95 :

IMPORTANT TOWNS or VILLAGES WITH SHORT NOTICES OF TEMPLES, MOSQUES, CHURCHES, ETC., SITUATED IN or ABOUT SUCH PLACES.

Tannur—(a corrupted form of Thanniyur or Thanni + ur, meaning the village of Thanni trees, Terminalia bellerica, which are still very common here)—is a small town largely inhabited by Mappillas in Rayirimangalam amsam, situated about a mile west of the Tannur Railway station.

The streets and the lanes are narrow and generally in a dirty state. It is a seaport, and contains a Travellers’ bungalow, a Sea Customs office, a Police station, a Sub-Registrar’s office, a Post office and a chattram or mussaferkhana, the last three being situated close to one another, a quarter of a mile west of the Railway station, while all the rest lie in different parts of the town.

There are four mosques here, of which one is a jamath mosque (juma musjid). It is a tiled building, 186 feet in length and 93 in breadth, having the gate or gopuram covered with copper sheeting.

In the same (Rayirimangalam) amsam, about two miles to the south of the town, there is a famous Hindu temple known by the name of Keleswaram or Keraladhiswaram temple dedicated to Vishnu. As its name (Kerala + adhiswaran, the governing deity of Keralam or Malabar) implies, it is one of the most ancient Hindu temples in the district. It is about 50 feet in length and 35 in breadth, the Srikovil or shrine and the Vatilmadam or hall being tiled, and the nalambalam or the four wings of the temple thatched.

The total number of inhabitants in the amsam is 11,344, no less than 7,037 or 62 per cent of whom are Muhammadans, while Hindus and Christians number 4,305 and 2 respectively. In the matter of population this amsam stands next to Ponnani. In the adjoining Pariyapuram amsam, about 2 miles to the north of Tannur, there is another temple deserving notice This is called the Trikkayikkatt temple. The deities worshipped here are Siva, Bhagavati and Ayyappan. It is a tiled building and is about 33 feet in length and 28 in breadth. The figures of Siva, Brahma, Vishnu and Narusimhamurthi are painted on the wall of the Srikovil and two sculptures, representing the figures of Dowasthans (or door-keepers), are placed in front of the Srikovil.

Bettatpudiyangadi.—[Bettat + Pudiya + Angadi, means the New Town in Vettam. which name was given to the place in former days, for, here was the seat of the Raja of Betatnad. This family became extinct and the estate escheated in 1793.] The head-quarters of the Bettatpudiyangadi Deputy Tahsildar is a village in Talakkad amsam, situated about 3 miles from the Tirur Railway station along the road from there to Ponnani.

Muhammadans are the most numerous in the village, the Hindu and Muhammadan population being respectively, 3,156 and 3,179 total 6,335.

Besides the Deputy Tahsildar’s head-quarters, the place contains a Sub-Registrar’s office, a Police station and a chattram or mussaferkhana (now used as a Travellers’ bungalow). There is a Post office near the Railway station and a District Munsif’s Court and a Local Fund second class middle school about two miles from there on the road to Ponnani.

There are two jamath mosques (or jama masjid) and a minor mosque in the village, the most important of these being the Pudiyangadi jamath mosque, situated in the vicinity of the Deputy Tahsildar’s office. This is a grand building about 116 feet in length and 70 in breadth, the roof being tiled and the gopuram (the main entrance) being covered with copper sheeting. A granite slab on one of the steps of the northern gate bears an inscription. The writing has not yet been read.

At the Vellamasseri desam in the amsam there is a Hindu temple called the Garudan Kavu chiefly dedicated to Garudan (Vishnu’s Bird) and such dedications being rare, the temple is regarded with considerable reverence and is also largely resorted to by Hindu population for protection from any surpapida (visitations of serpentine displeasure in the form it is believed of various diseases), the deity being believed according to Hindu puranas to be the natural enemy of serpents.

In the adjoining Trikkandiyur amsam there is another ancient and famous temple called Trikkandiyur temple. It is dedicated to Siva, and is believed to have been founded by Parasu Rama. This temple is about 95 feet square. The Srikovil is a tiled building, the nalambalam being only thatched There is a big tank attached to the temple lying close to it.

Paronna—[a corrupted form of Paravannur, so called as being the place of residence in former days of Paravanur Panikkar, a desavali]— is a small Mappilla village lying by the side of the sea in Pachattri amsam about 3 miles to the west of Bettatpudiyangadi There is a jamath mosque (jama musjid) here. This is a tiled building, 140 feet in length and 58 in breadth. The total number of inhabitants in the amsam is 4,243, of whom 1,764 are Hindus, the remainder 2,479 being Muhammadans.

Kodakkal —[Koda + kal or kallu, meaning umbrella-stone. The place seems probably to have been so called because of the existence of several umbrella-stones in the neighbourhood.] It is a Basel Mission station situated in Triprangod amsam about 2 miles to the south-east of Bettatpudiyangadi. There is a church, a combined industrial and girls’ school and a weaving establishment here. The total population of the amsam numbers 5,393 divided into 2,724 Hindus, 2,398 Muhammadans and 271 Christians.

In the neighbourhood of this place are situated some of the most ancient Hindu temples in the district, viz., (1) the Triprangod Siva temple ; (2) the Hanuman Kavu ; (3) the Tirunavayi Vishnu temple and (4) the Chamravattatt Ayyappan Kavu. Of these the first two are situated in Triprangod amsam, while the last two lie in the neighbouring Atavanad and Pallipurani amsams, respectively.

All the temples are considered to be of great antiquity. (I) The Triprangod (called in Sanscrit Sri + vara + crod) temple is dedicated to Siva and lies about 2 miles to the south of Bettattpudiyangadi. The Srikovil is a tiled building about 105 feet in length and 75 in breadth. The raised stone foundation of a pillar of the building consecrated to Krishna here bears a long inscription. The writing cannot be deciphered locally.

The ceremony of Sanghabhishekam (pouring water on the head of the idol by means of a conch shell), is supposed to be the most acceptable offering to the presiding deity (Siva), and this is performed largely by the people under the honest belief that thereby their life will be prolonged.

(2) The Hanuman Kavu, as its name indicates, is dedicated to Hanuman (the monkey chief, deified). The rareness, comparatively, of dedications of temples to this deity, seems to enhance the value of this temple in the estimation of the people. The Srikovil and the mandapam are small tiled buildings, the surrounding wall of the former all over containing paintings of the devas and of vyalam, and it has also two statues of Dwasthanmar (door-keepers), placed one on each side of the entrance.

(3) The Thirunavayi (or Shri + naa + yogi + puram) Siva temple seems to have been so called on account of its having been, it is believed, founded by the 9 famous saints. The temple is situated on the northern bank of the Ponnani river on the road from Bettatpudiyangadi to Trittala. The place was in former days noted as being the locality where the Mahamakha Vela or ceremony was celebrated every 12th year.

During the 28 days the festival lasted, the throne of the Zamorin was declared vacant, when a selected number out of the followers of this potentate, and also of the Walluvanad Rajah, being the rival claimant for the throne (all being well trained for the purpose), fought1 against each other for it in the interests of their respective masters. The ceremony is said to have been last performed in 1743.

NOTEs: 1. See pp. 162-69, Vol I END OF NOTEs

The Srikovil is a massive tiled building and has two big statues of Dwasthanmar as in the case of the Hanuman Kavu, one on each side of the entrance into it. This place is further famous as containing an institution founded and amply endowed by the Zamorin, where Hindu theology is extensively taught to the Nambutiri Brahman students. This instruction is imparted in a spacious building, called the Oththanmar madham, situated on the opposite side of the river, under the supervision of Tirunavayi Vadhyan, the Zamorin’s hereditary family priest.

Another point deserving notice in connection with this place is the existence of a small temple dedicated to Brahma, which is of very rare occurrence.

(4) The Chamravattam Ayyappan kavu, dedicated to Ayyappan, is situated on a small island near the Chamravattam ferry on the road from Tirur to Ponnani. The Srikovil is a small tiled building, but badly in want of repairs. This deity is supposed to possess a specially controlling power over rain, and people hence frequently make small offerings on behalf of this temple for rain when it is wanted and also to stop it when it is not required.

Kuttayi.—[Kutt + ali, meaning a junction and a bar, respectively.) It is said that there was here formerly a bar, where the backwaters lying along the coast from Tirur and Ponnani united and communicated with the sea. Hence the designation of the place as Kuttayi. It is a large Muhammadan village, situated by the side of the sea in Mangalam amsam about 4 miles to the south-west of Bettatpudiyangadi.

Of the inhabitants, Muhammadans are the most numerous numbering 3,186 out of a population of 5,069, the remainder, viz., 1,883 being Hindus. There is a famous jamath mosque (or jama musjid) in the village which is a tiled building, being 105 feet in length and 48 in breadth. There is also a Jaram or mausoleum attached to it called the Nechchikkat Jaram, so named on account of its being surrounded by nechchi bushes. It is not known whose remains lie burried here, but it is held in considerable reverence, and is largely resorted to by Muhammadans, especially on the occasion of the annual Nercha festival, when the approximate attendance of pilgrims is estimated to be no less than 2,000.

Ponnani.— [The place is said to have been designated Ponnani, which is a corrupted form of "Ponnani" "Ponnanayam,'' meaning gold coin, as being the place where the gold coin, called the Arabikasu was first circulated in these parts of the district by the Arab and Persian merchants who possessed the trade between India and the west before the discovery of the sea route to India round the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese.]

This town, the divisional and taluk headquarters, is large and populous, situated on the Ponnani river at its entrance into the sea. It contains also, the Kutnad District Munsif's Court, the Ponnani Sub-Registrar's office, a combined Post and Telegraph office, a Local Fund third-class middle school and a hospital and dispensary.

The amsam of Ponnani of which the town forms a part, contains 12,421 inhabitants, of whom no less than 86 per cent are Mappillas. The spiritual head, called the Makkadum of the Muhammadan population throughout the district, resides here. There are 27 mosques in the town, of which one is a jamath mosque (or jama musjid), deserving special notice as being also a place where Muhammadan theology is largely taught. The average daily attendance of students, belonging not only to all parts of the district but also to the native states of Cochin and Travancore and oven South Canara, who receive instruction in the mosque, is about 400.

The mosque is spacious four-storeyed bidding, 90 feet in length and 60 in breadth, said to have been build in Hejira 925 (A.D). 1510), by Said-ud-din Makkadum, and stands close to the jaram or mausoleum, which contains his own and his successors’ remains. Such of the students as attain proficiency in the Muhammadan religion here are called Musaliyars, the Makkadum alone having the privilege to confer that title. This jaram is held in great reverence and largely resorted to by the Muhammadan population all oyer the district.

Ponnani is also a seaport. The principal articles of export are timber, bamboos, coconuts and coir, and the chief imports are salt and rice. Half a mile to the south of the bazaar there is a travellers’ bungalow, while a mile and a half to the east of the town there is a chattram or musaferkhana. The hospital and dispensary is under the charge of a civil apothecary and has accommodation for 10 in-patients (6 males and 4 females).

About half a mile to the south-east of the town, at Trikkavu in the adjoining Pallapram amsam, there is an ancient Hindu temple of considerable historical importance. It is dedicated to "Durgha Bhagavathi" and is believed to have been founded by Parasu Rama, the demi-god and hero, and made over by him to the Brahman colony at this place, being a sub-division of Sukapuram gramam, one of his 64 colonies.

Tippu is said to have plundered the temple during his invasion of the country, broken the idol into pieces, and used the Srikovil as his powder magazine while halting at this place. On the restoration of peace and order in the country, a few of the former owners of the temple who had taken refuge in Travancore on Tippu’s approach, returned and discovering in the temple well the broken pieces of the original idol, repaired and repurified it ; but later on, being unable to repair all the damages caused to the temple by Tippu, made it over to the Zamorin of Calicut, who seems to have carried out all the necessary repairs in M.E. 1037 (1861 A.D.).

Within the precincts of this temple there is another Srikovil, consecrated to Vishnu. The history of its foundation is interesting. Tradition has it that in olden days, while a Chetti and a Muhammadan were sailing in their ship laden with merchandise, a violent storm occurred, that they being apprehensive of the loss of their lives, took vows to build a temple and a mosque respectively, in the event of their being able to land safely and that they having so landed at this place, in fulfilment of their vows, founded this Vishnu temple and the present jamath mosque in the town.

The temple is 112 feet in length and 72 in breadth. Both the Srikovil and the Nalambalam of Dhurga Bhagavathi have tiled roofs. The temple has also a high double-storeyed and tiled gopuram. There is a large public tank here about 400 feet in length and 300 in breadth. It was in a ruined state formerly, but has now laterite steps all round, these improvements having been carried out by Rama Kini, a late Tahsildar of this taluk.

Edappal, five miles east of Ponnani, is a large village, situated in the amsam of the same name on the main road from Ponnani to Palghat via Trittala. It is chiefly inhabited by Mappillas. The total population of the amsam is 6,595. Of this, 4,874 are Hindus, and the reminder Muhammadans. In the neighbouring Vattamkulam amsam, there is an important Hindu temple called the Sukapuram1 temple. It is believed to be of great antiquity and also to have been founded by the hero and demi-god Parasu Rama, It is dedicated to Dakshinamurthi or Siva, and is said originally to have been attached specially to the Nambutiri Brahmans of Sukapuram, which was one of the 64 gramams or settlements founded by Parasu Rama.

Even to this day offerings are invariably made by the Nambutiris belonging to this gramam on occasions of marriage or other ceremonies among them, and none who have performed yagams or sacrifices are recognized as such until they are registered at this pagoda. This registration takes place once in 12 years. The Srikovil or Garbagraham (shrine) of the temple, is a massive laterite structure, 50 feet in length, 45 in breadth and 40 in height, the roof being covered with copper sheeting.

NOTEs: 1. Conf. pp. 120.21, Vol. I END OF NOTEs

About 6 miles to the north-east of Edappal village and about the same distance in the same direction from the Sukapuram temple, there is another famous ancient Hindu temple. It is situated in Chekod amsam. This also is believed to have been founded by the same hero and demi-god, Parasu Rama, being specially attached to the Nambutiri Brahman colony of Panniyur1 (another of the 64 settlements referred to). This temple is a small tiled building, the presiding deity being Varahamurthi (according to the Hindu puranas the 3rd incarnation of Vishnu).

This is the chief temple of the Nambutiris, designated the Panniyur Gramakkar of the present day. They are said not to possess the prerogative of studying the Vedas, having, it is said, been deprived of the same owing to some of their ancestors in ancient days having placed a red hot vessel on the head of the idol of the presiding deity of the temple. In front of the temple there are some granite sculptures and also a slab of the same material bearing an inscription in Vattezuthu characters, some of which having now become indistinct, the writing has not been deciphered.

Trittala.—It is a small village in Kodanad amsam, situated by the side of the Ponnani river on the road from Ponnani to Palghat about 17 miles to the east of Ponnani. The total population of Kodanad amsam is 5,840. of whom 4,877 are Hindus and the remainder Muhammadans. There is a traveller’s bungalow and a chattram or musaferkhana here. It is also the station of a Sub-Registrar. A weekly market is held here. About four miles south of this place are the ruins of a mud fort, 200 yards in length and 176 in breadth. This fort appears to have been at one time the principal place in this tract of country for it has given a name—Kutnad—to the nad lying south of the Ponnani river, which prior to the reorganisation of taluks in 1861 formed the Kutnad taluk.

About three miles to the north-east of these ruins and by the side of the road from Padinharangadi to Shoranore, is a small building called Kattilmadam or Kaittalimadam, built entirely of granite slabs, and in the form of the Hindu shrine. It is ten feet square and of the same height, having a round dome formed of a single slab. Tradition ascribes its construction to supernatural agency. One popularly received account is that it was intended as the second storey to a pagoda about 4 miles off in Netirimangalam amsam of Walluvanad taluk on the other side of the river, and a comparison of the shape and size of the existing shrine at the pagoda with those of this curious structure certainly favours this theory.

There is another place in the neighbourhood of Trittala deserving notice. It is called Velliyamkallu and Is situated about a mile down the river from there and on the opposite side of it. It is considered by Hindus as a sacred place as being the spot where the Nambutiri Brahmin named the Melathur Akkithripad is believed to have performed a number of yagams or sacrifices and is hence largely resorted to by them for the performance of the anniversaries of their ancestors on Vavu (new moon) days occurring in the Malayalam months of Tulam and Karkitagam.

Chalisseri is a small village and a bazaar situated on the borders of Kappur and Kottachira amsams about 6 miles to the south of Trittala. It is chiefly inhabited by Syrian Christians. This community has a small church here. The place is noted for trade in arecanuts.

Veliyangod is a village chiefly inhabited by Mappillas, situated in the amsam of the same name, about 4 miles to the south of Ponnani. There is a Police station here and also a Sub-Registrar's office at Andathod in the adjoining Ayyur amsam. The total population of Veliyangod amsam is 6,826 of whom the majority are Muhammadans, numbering 3,771, the remainder being Hindus.

Kottapadi.—[Kotta or fort and padi or gate. The place seems to have been so designated on account of its being situated close to the seat, named the Punnathur Kotta of one of the feudatory chieftains of the Zamorin in ancient days, known by the name of the Punathur Raja.] It is a small village about 3 miles to the north-east of Kuttingal. It is chiefly inhabited by Syrian Christians who have a church here. The place is noted for trade in coconut oil and the rearing of country pigs by the Christians. These animals are generally transported to the Nilgiri hills and other distant places for sale. The present representatives of the above-mentioned chieftain's family still reside here.

Kuttingal, the Chavakkad Deputy Tahsildar’s headquarters, is a village in Palayur amsam lying by the side of the canal from Ponnani to Cochin, about 17 miles to the south of the former place. The total population of the amsam is 6,296 of whom 3,482 are Hindus, 2,456 Muhammadans and the rest 308 Christians (Syrian). The village also contains a District Munsif’s Court, a Sub-Registrar’s office, and a Post office. Half a mile north of the place there is a Local Fund 2nd-class middle school, and half a mile east of Kuttingal, there is a Syro-Roman Catholic church, called the Palayur church, which is noted as being one of the seven original churches of Malabar.

The congregation believe that St. Thomas the Apostle preached at the place, and it is noteworthy in connection with the suggestion made at p. 202 of Volume I, that in immediate proximity to the existing modern church there is a mound with small debris strewn about it, which is still known as the site of the "Jews’ church," and which was evidently occupied by a building of some kind in former times.

The only relics of any age about the place now are some carved stones, including part of a Siva lingam stone and a worn-out Vatteluttu inscription, the spoils of a Siva shrine also in the neighbourhood. The modem church is a tiled building, 86 feet in length and 34 in breadth. It is under the See of the Patriarch of Babylon.

In the Palayur and the adjoining Chavakkad amsams there are also two mosques called after the respective amsams. The former is about quarter of a mile to the east of Kuttingal, while the latter is about a mile to the west of it. They are tiled buildings, 40 and 50 feet in length and 21 and 15 in breadth, respectively.

There is also a jaram or mausoleum in Palayur amsam of some importance containing the remains of one Hydros Kutti1 who was, it is said, the Commissioner appointed by Hyder Ali, on his conquest of the district, to collect the revenue in these parts of the taluk, but who having subsequently espoused the cause of the people against his masters’ tyrannies, seems to have incurred that tyrant’s displeasure and fallen in battle with the forces sent against him oh the spot where the building now stands. It is held in reverence, and is also resorted to by the Muhammadan population in these parts of the taluk.

NOTEs: See Vol. I, p. 662. END OF NOTEs

Guruvayur.—[So designated after the famous temple of Krishna located there, which is believed to have been founded, as its name indicates, by Guru and Vayu, being, according to the Hindu Puranas, the preceptor of the Devas and the god of wind, respectively. ] It is an important Hindu village, situated in the amsam of the same name, about 2 miles to the north-east of Kuttingal.

The amsam has a total population of 6,686 inhabitanta, of whom Hindus are the most numerous, amounting to 4,946, the remainder being divided into 527 Muhammadans and 1,206 Christians. The residents about the Guruvayur temple are chiefly the higher classes of Hindus, viz.. Brahmans and Nayars.

It is one of the most important Hindu temples in the district, and is held in great reverence, and also largely resorted to by the Hindu population (especially by the sick) throughout the district, as well as of the neighbouring native States of Cochin and Travancore. It is surrounded by a high laterite wall and has two lofty gopurams or entrances, one in the east and the other in the west.

On the granite door-frame of the western one there is an inscription which indicates that it was built in 922 M.E. by one Panikkavittil Ittiraricha Menon Kariyakkar. A granite slab in the front part of the eastern entrance, too, contains an inscription in Sanskrit verse as noted in the margin. [Given here below]:

ഭൂപാലൈർവ്വെനജാദ്യൈ: കലിമലാഹി തൈരാർജ്ജിതാൻ പുണ്യലൊകാൻ ആരൊഢ നിഷ്പ്രയാസം നിജസുകൃതജിതാൻ ദിവ്യസൊപാനമാർഗ്ഗം തുംഗംഹൃന്നെത്രരമ്യം ഗുരുപവനപുരെശാഗ്രതൊ ഗൊപുരാഗ്ര്യവ്യാജെനാധൊക്ഷം ജാഘ്രൌകൃതമതിരകരൊഛൈലാവാരാർന്നിധീശ:

Both the srikovil (shrine) and the mandapam have roofs covered with copper sheetings, while the Nalambalam has tiled roofs. The temple flagstaff deserves special notice. It is 110 fleet in height. having a bell metal covering throughout, save about 9 feet from the top, which has a gold covering. The surrounding wall of the shrine is elaborately painted all over, in illustration of the various adventures of Vishnu as recorded in the Bhagavathapurana.

Chittatkara—is a small village chiefly inhabited by Syrian Christians, situated in Brahmakulam amsam about 4 miles to the south-east of Kuttingal. There is a small church belonging to this community here. The total population of the amsam is 4,179, of whom 2,256 are Hindus. Of the remainder, 1,582 are Christians and the rest Muhammadans. The chief articles of trade here, are coconut and coconut oil.

Enamakkal—is another village mainly inhabited by Syrian Christians in Venkitanga anisam, about 8 miles to the south-east of Kuttingal and 4 in the same direction from Chittatkara. Here, there is an important ancient Syrio Roman Catholic church. It is a tiled building, about 93 feet in length and 35 in breadth. The total population of the amsam is 6,416, of whom 1,770 are Syrian Christians, the rest being divided into 3,686 Hindus and 960 Muhammadans. The chief articles of trade here, too, are coconut and coconut oil.

Velappad—.is a village chiefly inhabited by Syrian Christians, situated in Pallipuram amsam about 17 miles to the south-west of Kuttingal. It contains a Police station and a Sub-Registrar's office. About a mile to the north of the place at Triprayar, in Nattika amsam, there is a famous ancient Hindu temple. It lies by the side of the inland water communication to Cochin and belongs to the Cochin State. The presiding deity here is Sri Rama. The temple is 342 feet square, and the roof of the shrine is covered with copper sheeting, the nalambalam being tiled.

On a granite slab of the wall of the srikovil there an inscription, but it is very difficult to decipher the writing. A granite slab by the side of the eastern entrance, also, bears an inscription in Malayalam. The total number of inhabitants in Pallippuram amsam is 4,563, of whom 3,513 are Hindus ; of the remainder, 655 are Muhammadans and 395 Christians.

പഴഞ്ചെരിപനടനായരും - തൃപ്പുരയാറ്റ ദേശത്തും - പെരിങ്ങൊട്ടദേശത്തും - ആരിയപൊന്നിദേശത്തും ഊരാളരും കാരാളരും നെടുംകൊണ്ടവരും കടിഇരിമ്പാടതിരി.

Edathiruthi—is another Syrian Christian settlement situated in the amsam of the same name about 4 miles south of Valappad. The amsam has a population of 8,886 inhabitants, classified into 6,548 Hindus, 1,293 Muhammadans and 748 Syrian Christians. There is a small church belonging to Syrian Christians here.

Madilagam.—[The place is so called after the name of the temple, called the Trikkanna or Trikkata Madilagam temple, which existed there in ancient days and is believed to have been founded by Parasu Rama for the use of Trikkannapuram gramam, being one of the 64 Nambutiri Brahman settlements founded by him. It is said that it was subsequently destroyed by the Dutch who had formerly a settlement at Chetwai.

Traces of the foundations of an old temple are still visible.] It is another Syrian Christian settlement in Pappinivattam amsam. There is an ancient church belonging to this community here. The total number of inhabitants in the amsam is 5,739, of whom 3,610 are Hindus ; of the rest, 1,737 Muhammadans and 392 Christians. The place contains also a mosque, and is situated about 9 miles south of Edathiruthi.

Police.—For purposes of Police administration, the taluk is divided between 3 Inspectors, who have their head-quarters at the Tahsildar's and Deputy Tahsildar’s head-quarters respectively. There are 17 Police stations in all, distributed in the three divisions as follows:-

Ponnani Division

(1). Veliyangod : In Eramangalam amsam, 5 miles from Tahsildar's headquarters.

(2). Ponnani : In Ponnani amsam, Tahsildar's head-quarters.

(3). Edappal : In the amsam of the same name 6 miles from Tahsildar’s head-quarters.

(4). Chiyyanur : In Othalur amsam, 10 miles from Tahsildar's head-quarters.

(5). Padinharangadi : In Kumaranallur amsam, 11 miles from Tahsildar's head-quarters.

(6). Kutnad : In Kodnad amsam, 16 miles from Tahsildar's head-quarters.

Chavakkad Division.

(1) Madilagam : In Pappinavattam amsam, 28 miles from Chavakkad Deputy Tahsildar’s head-quarters.

(2) Valappad : In Pallipuram amsam, 17 miles from Chavakkad Deputy Tahsildar’s head-quarters.

(3) Chavakkad : In Palayur amsam, Deputy Tahsildar’s head-quarters.

(4) Vylathur : In Vylathur amsam, 4 miles from Deputy Tahsildar’s head-quarters.

(5) Audathod : In Ayrur amsam, 8 miles from Deputy Tahsildar's head-quarters.

Bettatpudiyangadi Division

(1) Kuttayi : In Mangalam amsam, 4 miles from Bettatpudiyangadi Deputy Tahsildar’s head-quarters.

(2) Putiyangadi : In Talakkad amsam. Deputy Tahsidar's headquarters

(3) Tanur : In Rayirimangalam amsam, 6 miles fiom Deputy Tahsildar's head-quarters.

(4) Kalpagancheri : In the amsam of the name, 6 miles from Deputy Tahsildar’s head-quarters.

5) Vatakkumpuram : In Kattiparutti amsam, 16 miles from Deputy Tahsildar’s head-quarters.

(6) Kuttipuram : In Atavanad amsam, 8 miles from Deputy Talisildar’s head-quarters.

Festivals and fairs: The chief annual festivals celebrated in the taluk are shown below. On these occasions fairs are also held ; the most important being the one held on the occasion of the Guruvayur Ekadesi festival, and for a week or so after it is over. The chief articles changing hands are lasting copper and bell metal vessels of various kinds:-

List of Charitable Institutions in Ponnani taluk

List of Hindu Religious Institutions in Ponnani taluk in connection with which Government have remitted Land Revenue as Inam.

Weekly markets.—The subjoined statement shows the weekly markets held in the taluk. There are nine such markets. The majority of the traders being Muhammadans, and Friday being a holy day with them, no markets are held on that day. In all the markets, salted fish seems to be the chief article of trade, while vegetable and other articles are also largely sold.

Travellers' Bungalows and Chattrams.—There are five travellers’ bungalows and four chattrams or musapherkhanas in the taluk as shown in the following statement :

G. Trigonometrial Survey Stations.-—There is only one such station in the taluk. This is called Kutnad or Kurungnt hill station situated about a mile to the south of Trittala in N. Lat. 10° 47' 32.64" and Long. 76° 08' 36.50". It is in good condition.

European Tombs and Burial Grounds.—There is only one isolated tomb and no European burial grounds exist in this taluk. The former is situated near Trittala and is in fair condition. It bears the following inscription : “Here rest the remains of Henreitta, the beloved wife of Captain James Falconer, H.M’s 74th Highlanders. She died at Trittala on 24th February 1855, aged 35 years. This stone has been placed here by her bereaved husband as a small token of affection."

A tombstone recording the death of the first Dutch commandant of the Dutch fort at Chetwai who died at that place in 1729 also exists, and has already been referred to in Vol I, p. 349. The site of this grave is unknown.

Statement showing old tombs or Pandu Kulis existing in Ponnani Taluk.